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Artist’s Seal
China , ca. 2001. Wood, pigment.
2001.04.0002
In Ancient China, black ink paintings were an important form of art and were commonly displayed in domestic spaces. The scrolls on display contain two of the “four gentlemen,” works often hung in scholarly rooms. The scrolls’ subjects are flowers: the chrysanthemum, associated with autumn, and the cherry blossom, associated with spring.
Unlike European paintings, Chinese paintings often include both poems and seal signatures. Seals with three types of signatures can be added to a painting: the artist’s seal, the seal of the artist’s studio, and the seals of all who have collected that particular painting over the years. The seal itself is considered a work of art because of its calligraphy and decoration.
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Kourous
Plaster cast of Parian marble Greek original from Tenea, near Corinth, Greece, ca. 565 bce, now in Glyptothek Museum, Munich.
1914.07.0002
This statue from an ancient cemetery near Corinth originally marked the grave of a wealthy man, representing him at the height of his youthful power. This kind of statue, called a kouros , from the Greek word for a youth, derives from the Egyptian canon of sculpture and becomes more realistic in appearance over the course of the 6th century BCE.
About 100 years after this statue was erected, it was buried to protect it from being destroyed by invaders, which probably accounts for its excellent preservation—only the middle section of the right arm had to be restored. Because of its high quality, this kouros is regarded as a model specimen of archaic Greek male statuary.
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Roman Hermes Propylaios
2nd c. marble copy of marble original by Alkamenes from the Acropolis, Athens, Greece, ca. 450 bce, now lost.
1985.03.0002
The herm statue, named for the god Hermes, consists of a head and torso merging at hip level into a pillar, a form derived from primitive fertility symbols. Herms were thought to have protective powers and were used to mark boundaries outside houses, at crossroads, and along major streets. The term propylaios above means "of or at the gateway." During the time of the Roman Empire, elaborately decorated herms became popular and were even given portrait heads of prominent men or women.
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Daoist Deity on Water Buffalo
China , late 18 th–19th c. Bamboo.
1999.13.0014
Daoism
Daoism is both a traditional Chinese philosophy and a religion. The core of religious Daoism is that ordinary people can attain a state of immortality through diet, meditation, breathing exercises, and moral cultivation. When this immortal state is reached, the person is said to have “attained the Dao.” The Dao, sometime referred to as “the void,” is the infinite space of pure energy that has existed since life’s beginning.
Daoism has built upon its basic beliefs of reverence for life and nature by drawing upon concepts from many other sources, including Confucianism and the theory of Yin-Yang and the Five Elements. The influence of Daoist belief has been felt in government, medicine, philosophy, literature, art, music, chemistry, and technology.
Daoist Immortals
Through cultivation and refinement a person can attain the Dao and become an immortal. Immortals move between heaven and earth and have the ability to intercede with the higher gods on behalf of mortals. These religious figures are common artistic subjects; two of them are portrayed here in statues. One of the immortals has his finger to his ear. The other, possibly Laozi, is astride a water buffalo.
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Souvetaurilia
Plaster cast of marble original from imperial altar in Rome, mid 1st c., now in Musée du Louvre, Paris.
1916.05.0006
In the ancient world, sacrificial altars were the focus of religious activity. The scene depicted in this relief shows the state using an expensive offering to ensure the favor of the gods. The priest brings fruit and incense while celebrants lead the animals to be sacrificed: a boar (sus), a ram (ovis), and a bull (taurus). Although participation in souvetaurilia (purification rituals) was mandatory, the people making the sacrifice had to be clean and pure; those who might offend a deity could not participate.
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Mummy
1989.06.0001
This young person was mummified in Egypt around the first century ce. Through the use of ultra-violet light, the Museum has been able to recreate a visual record of the now-faded figures painted on the front of the mummy’s bindings. This record is shown in the drawing on the right. The central figure of the composition is Nut, goddess of the sky. Below her is her son Osiris, god of the dead. Above Nut are falcons symbolizing Horus, the son of Osiris. At the top of the bindings is a faded portrait of the person inside. The portrait has not survived well; thus it is not known if the person was male or female.
The mummy burial area has been created with the permission of the Egyptian Antiquities Association and in accordance with its standards, which acknowledge the educational value of exhibits about the ancient Egyptian mummification process.
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Bird-Shaped Ritual Vessel with Lid
Reproduction of original type from China, Shang and Zhou periods (1766–249 bce).
P0014A-B
Bronze vessels from the Shang and Zhou periods are evidence of the technical and artistic achievements of a highly sophisticated bronze-casting industry. At the time they were made they were seen as symbols of power and nobility; their possession and use were restricted to the royal family and aristocracy.
Bronze containers like this one were used for ancestral rites during the Shang and Zhou periods (1766-249 bce) in China. Most of them were designed to hold food, wine, or water. Many of the ancient bronzes discovered today are excavated from burial sites.
The surface decoration of these vessels could be either raised or recessed. Shang bronzes often include a taotie, a unique type of decorative pattern consisting of a fierce animal face created by connecting two abstract creatures head-to-head in profile. Each profile contributes an eye, horn, and jaw to the ferocious beast.
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Laocoön Group.
Plaster cast of 1st c. Roman marble copy in Vatican Museum. Hellenistic bronze original ca. 200 bce, now lost.
1900.13.0001.
After years of warfare, the Greeks sent the Trojans a gift of surrender—a giant, wooden horse. Suspicious, the Trojan priest Laocoön argued against accepting it. The god Poseidon, favoring the Greeks, sent serpents to kill Laocoön and his sons. Seeing him punished, the Trojans pulled the gift—filled with the Greek soldiers who would cause their defeat—inside their walls. This story illustrates the voice of the individual who challenges the consensus, countering even the gods.
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P'ai Pan Clapper
China , ca. 1880–1911, Late Qing Dynasty. Wood, cotton.
1900.16.0011
Personal cultivation begins with poetry, is made firm by rules of decorum, and is perfected by music.
—Confucius
In his study, the Confucian scholar may well have had a pair of p’ai pan clappers, two simple pieces of wood used to provide rhythm in dance. Learning to play a musical instrument was an integral part of traditional scholarly training. To the Chinese, music is a language unto itself, one that expresses a person’s feelings long after words have become ineffectual. As the Chinese proverb states, “At the end of language is the beginning of music.”
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Khafre
1948.01.0069
This statue represents King Khafre, builder of the most completely preserved pyramid complex of the Giza group. He may also be the builder of the Sphinx, which guards the complex entrance. The body of the Sphinx is made in the likeness of a lion, symbolizing kingly strength. The head, thought to be the likeness of Khafre, was once painted brownish red with an elaborate headdress.
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Ancestor Tablet with Pedestal
China , ca. 1800-1911. Wood, paint.
1977.08.0009-10
The Names of the Ancestors
In China, tablets listing the names of deceased ancestors are traditionally kept in the family shrine, and tablets older than four generations are moved to the family’s lineage hall. In honor of great family events and on commemorative occasions, descendants light candles, burn incense, and offer food and prayers. These rituals serve to remind the present generation of their debt to those who have gone before and their duty to the progeny that are to follow.
The Confucian Home
The philosophy of Kong Qiu (551-479 bce), known in the West as Confucius, has had a significant and enduring influence on East Asian culture. His teachings have served traditionally as the source of knowledge and values.
Confucius saw the family as the cornerstone of society, an institution of care, support, and education. At home, self-esteem, respect, love, and care for others were taught and experienced. Educating children, caring for parents, and venerating elders and ancestors were important values emphasized in the writings of Confucius and carried on into the present day.
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Grave Stele of Thraseas
Plaster cast of Greek Pentelic marble original from Athens, Greece, 350–325 bce, now in Berlin Museum.
1914.04.0010
This stele depicts a scene of departure in front of a shrine. Thraseas says good-bye to his wife Euandria. Standing, he clasps his wife’s hand in a gesture of farewell, while a slave girl stands behind them, pensively resting her cheek on her hand. The scene does not reveal whether the man, woman, or both are deceased.
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China , early 20th c. Ink.
1900.16.0019
Confucius believed that human beings can be improved and perfected through education and learning.
To the Chinese scholar, writing was an important skill. The Wanfang Sibao, or Four Treasures of the Writing Studio, were the scholar's brush, ink, paper, and ink slab (used in ink preparation). In addition to these basic tools, brush rests, personal seals, scroll weights, and brush pots occupied the scholar's work table. Through the use of these implements, the scholar hoped to become proficient in the arts of poetry, painting, and calligraphy—the "three perfections.” Each tool not only served a useful purpose, but also was often appreciated as a form of art.
Chinese black ink was made from soot or lampblack held together with animal glue, and the mixture was then pressed into molds and hardened into decorative inksticks. Liquid ink was prepared by grinding the molded stick against one end of an inkstone and adding the ground pieces to a well of water at the stone’s other end.
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Brazier
China , 1880–1911, Qing Dynasty (1644–1911). Metal.
1975.10.0005A-C
Burning Incense
It is thought that the use of incense came to East Asia with the arrival of Buddhism. Over time, it spread to all religious ritual. Traditionally, hands were washed and incense burned before a book was read or an instrument was played, as the incense was believed to purify the spirit and the heart. Burning incense also served to freshen the air or clothing, as well as to keep time. |
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Roman Lion Head Door Knocker
Italy, 1st c. BCE–1st c. CE. Bronze.
1940.01.0002
To protect the family, houses were built around a garden or atrium. Exterior windows were usually only on the second story, and a limited number of doors provided the only access. Wealthier families often stationed slaves or guard dogs at these doors to protect the house and allow entrance only to certain people. Despite these security measures, burglars remained a constant problem, and valuable items were often kept locked in boxes such as bronze-plated money chests.
Doors were made of wood reinforced with metal and sometimes decorated with ornaments like bronze door knockers. They were latched and bolted with metal keys. The modern lock, in which the key rotates to withdraw the bolt, is a Roman innovation.
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Egyptian pots
In an undisturbed site, the layering of soils can help archaeologists give relative dates to the objects they find. The oldest items are in the deepest layer, the most recent in the top layers.
Because undisturbed sites are rare, Petrie worked for many years to develop sequence dating, a method that is based upon observation of the objects themselves. By studying an immense number of sites and artifacts he hypothesized that cultural change was reflected in the stylistic change in objects. By grouping artifacts based on their appearance and construction and then ordering the groups sequentially, he established the sequence dating chart reproduced in the case above. The pottery in the top row (30) is the oldest; that in the bottom row (80) is the most recent. Pottery types are illustrated in rows (left to right) while the development of pottery styles is illustrated according to time (top to bottom).
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Tomb Figurines of Archer and General
Ceramic reproductions of terracotta originals from the tomb of Emperor Qin Shihuangdi, Xi’an China, Qin Dynasty (221–209 bce).
P0003-4
Tomb of the First Emperor
One of the most remarkable finds of the 20th century was the funerary complex of China's first emperor, Ying Zheng of the Qin Empire. Discovered in 1974, it covers 20 square miles. In addition to the burial chamber of the emperor, the complex contains weapons, farm implements, and an army of more than 6,000 life-size terracotta soldiers, chariots, and horses. The enormous size and number of these terracotta figures bear witness to the military and economic power as well as the advanced organizational skills of the Qin Empire (221–209 bce).
Mandate of Heaven
In Confucian thought, the emperor governed with the mandate of heaven, which was granted to a virtuous and competent ruler. If he remained righteous and benevolent, things would go well for his reign and his people. If his rule became tyrannical, heaven would show its disapproval through such portents as droughts, famines, widespread diseases, and political unrest. The emperor had to correct his mistakes or his mandate would be revoked, and these devastating disasters would be used to justify overthrowing him and his family.
The founder of a new dynasty would claim to have received the mandate of heaven, which manifested itself in the support and triumph of the new regime over its contenders. The notion of the mandate of heaven was often invoked by Confucian officials in their criticism of the abuse of power by the emperors.
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Compass
China , 20th c. Glass, brass, paint, wood, cotton.
2001.04.0004
The Chinese lodestone compass came into use at least as early as the 4 th century bce. Instead of a needle, this compass used a piece of metal, often spoon- or fish-shaped, to designate south. This type of compass was used primarily on land for the divination of harmonious building sites.
By the 11 th century ce, the Chinese had found a way to magnetize iron needles and suspend them, enabling them to indicate direction. With these more refined compasses, accurate deep-sea navigation was possible. Some of the most far-reaching early journeys were those by Zheng He, who made seven voyages between 1405 and 1433 and traveled as far as Africa. His fleet contained 62 galleons, more than 100 auxiliary vessels, and more than 25,000 soldiers.
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Attic Red Figure Pelike
Oil jar by Painter of Lurvre G539. 425–400 bce. Terracotta.
1977.01.1684
The earliest and most important event at Greek athletic competitions was the foot race. Runners sprinted about 200 yards, cheered on by the crowd. This distance was called a stadion , hence the modern word stadium. Later, longer and more varied races were introduced, with runners wearing armor or carrying torches, which provided the inspiration for the modern Olympic torch.
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Silk Moth Cocoons
China , early 20 th c. Silk.
1924.07.0004, 16, 17, 18, 19
The Silk Road
In 138 bce, Zhang Qian was sent by the Chinese emperor Wudi to set up a military alliance with the Yuezhi people of the Central Asian steppes. Twice captured and held against his will, the envoy did not return to China for 13 years. Although his mission had been unsuccessful, Zhang Qian was able to pass along great knowledge of the western regions. Additional expeditions were sent into this area and beyond. By the 2 nd century ce a regular trade between China and the Roman Empire was solidified across a route today called the Silk Road.
Silk was only one type of merchandise carried along the Silk Road. Caravans traveling toward China carried gold, silver, ivory, precious stones, wool, and glass. From China came furs, porcelain, jade, bronze objects, lacquer, and iron.
All of these goods were moved by people from a widely diverse number of cultures and locations. Changan (now Xi’an), the capital of the Tang (618-907) and the eastern starting point of the route, developed into the largest and most cosmopolitan city in the world. By 742, the population had reached almost 2 million, including 5,000 foreigners. Many were missionaries, merchants, or pilgrims, but every other occupation was also represented.
Silk is one of the finest, lightest materials used in the production of fabric. The method of its production was a jealously guarded Chinese secret for more than 1,000 years. To create the silk thread, two elements are necessary: domesticated silkworms (the silk moth caterpillar) and the mulberry trees that provide the leaves on which they feed.
Silk itself is the 2,000 to 3,000 foot long filament the silkworm uses to wind its cocoon. Once a cocoon is soaked to release the binding medium, the end of the filament is located and unwound from the cocoon, if possible, in one continuous length. Several lengths must be combined to equal one strong thread. It takes 111 cocoons to make a silk tie and 630 cocoons to provide the thread for a woman’s blouse.
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Processional Scroll
China , ca. 1880–1911. Silk, paint.
1900.43.0012
Procession of Honor
Civil service examinations were held at three main levels of government: county, provincial, and metropolitan. Metropolitan graduates were eligible for government appointments. The highest-scoring graduates at the metropolitan exam would be awarded the jinshi (advanced scholar) degree. From this learned group were chosen the Hanlin scholars, privileged men who provided expert advice to the emperor and supervised the examination system. Their names were also inscribed on stone tables in the capital’s Confucian temple.
The scroll displayed here shows a procession honoring an advanced scholar.
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Augustus Primaporta
1983.09.0001
Plaster cast of 1st c. Roman marble copy in Vatican Museum. Roman bronze original ca. 20 bce, now lost.
This portrait depicts Augustus, Rome’s first emperor. Although Augustus generally refused to be portrayed as a god, he allowed divine references here. His bare feet indicate heroic or divine status, while the figure of Cupid links the emperor’s family to the goddess Venus. Imagery on the breastplate portrays a negotiated peace between the Romans and Parthians. Through this symbolism, the statue conveys strong political messages about the authority and accomplishments of Augustus.
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Tibetan Prayer Board Printing Block
Lhasa , Tibet, China, ca. 18th c. Wood, ink.
1928.13.0001A
Printing
Until the development of printing, hand copying and creating rubbings of stone-carved sacred writings were the only ways to duplicate text.
Woodblock printing was invented in China by the 8 th century. Movable-type printing was created 300 years later. Since the 16 th century, both types of printing have been commonly used in East Asia. The demand for printed works was enormous. The earliest extant copy of printed text is the Buddhist Diamond Sutra, from 868. In 953, the Chinese National Academy began selling the Confucian classics, a set of 130 volumes, to the general public. More than 400,000 copies of one 10 th-century Buddhist collection still survive today. The number in the original run is unknown.
Woodblock Printing
Because each woodblock carried only two folio pages of text, it took a large number of blocks to produce a book. This disadvantage is offset by the advantages of flexibility and durability of woodblocks. For a publisher with limited resources, the blocks could be carved in installments and a small number of copies could be printed. In contrast, movable type publishers needed to spread out the cost of typesetting by printing a large number of copies, which tied up his capital. Once carved, blocks could be used to print at least 20,000 copies.
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Ara Pacis
Plaster casts of marble originals from Augustan Altar of Peace in Rome, 13–9 bce.
1914.04.0013
These panels are from the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace), an important sacrificial altar in Rome. Constructed by order of the Senate, it celebrates the era of peace and prosperity brought about by the Emperor Augustus. Mythological imagery in the left panel represents peace or the abundant earth. The right panel depicts the imperial family on its way to the sacrifice ceremony. The central figure shows Augustus, his head covered in his role of chief priest of the Roman state religion.
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Early writing chart
This chart of Canaanite alphabetic letters demonstrates how each letter changed from a more complicated picture into just a simple shape.
Cuneiform script consists of combinations of triangular-shaped wedges impressed upon clay tablets. More than half a million tablets have been discovered and are the source of much of our knowledge of Mesopotamian civilization.
The earliest cuneiform signs each represented a complete word. To write words that represented actions and ideas—things that could not be drawn—the signs began to be used about 2900 BCE for their phonetic value as well as their whole word meaning. Thus the gu sign, which meant “ox,” could also be used for its phonetic value “gu” in whatever word contained that syllable. From that time on any type of speech could be written down.
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